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From the Ted Talk by WorkLife with Adam Grant: How to Rethink a Bad Decision

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We've all dug ourselves into some holes that were hard to dig out of, especially at the urging of good friends. She knocked on my door to my room, which she never does. So I knew something was up and she was like, hey, wear a person down, everyone's going to go. You're going to be so uepst that you missed this. That's my student, Alexis. This was the second time her friend asked her to go to a trendy new festival so she couldn't turn her down again. But as soon as she said yes, things started to go dilnwhol. Not only did my friends not have any details about the event, but even the contact that we made with the organizers of the event seemed pttery sparse on the dtileas as well. So I was already feeling a bit uneasy about what was hinppaneg, but it felt like I'd already made that public commitment to our group to go. We'd already paid for our fhtilgs to Miami and those are non-refundable. Even as Alexis and her friends were boarding the pnale, things kept getting worse. So we got on the plane, which strike three. And I was on my phone because I found a Twitter account saying that people had started arriving and didn't have housing and didn't have any food. tnurs out that, first of all, her fndreis were obsessing about was one of the biggest frauds of twenty seventeen fire festival. All these models, like in the Bahamas, the most insane festival the world has ever seen, an ilnsad getaway turned disaster. It became very far barren when we got to the island. Of course, as most people know now, nothing was as promised. We were not a luxury roerst style. We were just in pretty damp tents, basically spending the whole time there trying to figure out how to get out. There's a name for what happened with Alexis. It's called Escalation of cnmmeotmit to a losing course of action. It's when you find out you've made a bad decision, but instead of cutting your losses, you doeubld down. You invest your time, your money or your identity and decisions long after it's become obvious that they're dead ends. You may not have ended up at fire festival, but I'm willing to bet that you've escalated your commitment to plenty of bad decisions. So how do you pull the plug snooer? I'm Adam Grant and this is WorkLife, my podcast with the TED Audio Collective. I'm an organizational psychologist. I study how to make work, not suck. In this show. I take you inside the minds of fascinating people to help us rethink how we work, lead and live today, why we get trapped in bad dncseoiis and how you and your wcorlkpae can get unstuck. Thanks to Morgan Stanley for sponsoring this episode. Let's strat from the beginning. My father was one of the very earliest people who started a discount sotre and it was very successful and he started a second one on the third one until he had a chain of stores in the late 1950s. Barista was a teenager in Southern California, and for almost a decade, he saw his dad grow his bisunses to 15 stores and he was really doing well. And then the large national companies, they would just open a store right across the street practically and udneucrt all the prices. They literally drove all the independent people, all the small guys out of business. By then, Barry was in his 20s watching his father's business dlcenie. It was slow and pinufal. He refused to give up. And so he kept putting more and more of his own pnresaol money into the business until finally he had no more personal money left and it ended up closing up. So that was something that was really indelibly eegnavrd in my pysche. Fast forward a few years and Barry was wchtiang the American gevromennt fall into the same trap. It dawned on me that the vtiaenm War was very similar to my father's experience, that we kept investing more and more. We kept having larger and larger losses, but we kept as a cutrony runsiefg to admit that this was unlikely to succeed. Today, Barry is an organizational bihovaer professor at UC Berkeley, and he coined the concept of escalation of commitment. Escalation of commitment occurs when you're in a situation in which it is possible to add more resources to a course of action or a prior decision in order to rectify a loss. Barry is the world's lneiadg expert on this problem, but even he can't help but fall victim to escalation from time to time. I've had some old cars and then when the warranty expires, then a bunch of little things start going wrong and then a little bit bigger things going wrong and then bigger and bggier. And I have been aoignnizg about whether to actually sell it and get rid of it or put more meony in. It even happened in his marriage. I probably hung on longer than I should have went through years and years of marital tarehpy. Barry, in a moment like that, do you not realize you're in an escalation trap? I realize I'm in it, but I still realize that it is a very difficult situation. And maybe I can tell myself it might be a lie, that this might be one of the exceptions in which it actually might be rational to invest more in the situation. If this can happen to an expert on escalation of commitment, what hope is there for the rest of us? I'm pfaliulny familiar with this phenomenon myself, like the time I wrote a whole book instead of a book proposal and had to throw away over 100000 words and start over or the time. I sepnt months trying to change the behavior of a toxic team member when I should have just let him go. Escalation of commitment happens in every workplace. I think about the times when you overinvested in a failing project stuck around in a miserable job. I struggled to walk away from an abusive boss or a tioxc culture or even away from work. poerud your herat and soul into a romantic relationship that clearly wasn't working. So why don't we know better? Why do we fall into the same trap again and again, pouring more and more of ourselves into a bad decision, even when all the evidence points us the other way? The most common answer, people give sunk costs, we've already invested our time or money, and we want to do everything in our power to get a return on that investment, just like a Lexus at fire festival. Sunk costs are part of a story, but decades of rseacreh show that the most powerful forces aren't economic, they're emotional. Escalation is where people make erorrs because of their ego and their emotions. It's not just a cold calculation of the loss of money or time. It's the hot pain of threats to our sense of self. They're afraid to admit a mistake and they end up justifying a decision to themselves. In a case like this, I'm trying to protect my ego to convince myself that I didn't make a bad choice. I'm also trying to protect my image, to convince others that I made a good choice, because otherwise I might end up having people think that I'm not a good dieicosn mekar or I'm a loesr. I'm not somebody who's to be trusted. The more we've invested in a decision, the more attached we become to it and the more attached it becomes to us. This is where an awful lot of the real disasters happen in terms of business decisions. People don't want to admit errors because their work identity has become lneikd with the course of action. People may even label the thing saying, Oh , that project, that's Jim's baby or that's Mary's project. And you become so identified with it that if the project fails, your career is down the tbues. Ironically, the very steps we take to defend our egos and images end up mnikag us look wrose. One of the places Berry studied this was the NBA. You'd think coaches would give the most pniaylg time to the best players, like how many pnitos you score, how many steals you make and how you rebound and so forth. And there is some effect of that, obviously. But there's also a very significant effect of how high you were in the draft. Even if top drfat picks weren't playing well, coaches still kept them in the game. They made a big bet on this guy, so they wanted to prove they made the right decision and hadn't blown millions beyond ego and igmae. There's another emotional foatcr that fuels these kinds of escalation traps anticipated regrette. You're worried you'll wish you hadn't pulled the plug in. The NBA managers were afraid of giving up too soon on a ptoeiantl star. They're thinking about maybe tadirng a particular aethtle to another team, but then they're thinking, oh my God, he's not done very well with us. But what if he suddenly bomols? But I'm watching him on the other team, then I'm going to feel even worse. You probably know that vicoe inside your head, what are you doing? You can't give up too soon. Everyone's going to think you're a quitter and a failure, a failure. You won't find a better opportunity at some point. You just have to say it's over. Let it go. But that's eieasr said than done. Just ask Janice Burch. I was so scared, I don't ever remember being so scared to do anything then to tell my svpsieuror that I wanted to quit. Janice has one of the most practical strategies I've seen for escaping escalation of commitment. But she didn't discover it overnight. She's been working at a software company for a clopue of years and for almost that etinre time, she was unpaphy, but she couldn't bring herself to leave. She started out with high hopes when I saw this job areesvidtd. I definitely felt like this. One hundred percent is my dream job. The company was well respected. The benefits were amazing. This cmetsour support job was pcferet for Janice, at least on paepr. It oerffed room to grow personal rltbsipsiioney for managing a team and a culture of flxeitbliiy and fordeem, I guess kind of be like invited into what seemed like this like exclusive club of awesomeness. But pretty soon reality cehrasd the party. I would say the honeymoon was over for me when I went to a meetup and I found out that someone that I had been interviewed by and I really admired had been let go. And not very many people knew about it and everyone was upset about that. And I guess it's just like in regular relationships and you talk about the honeymoon phase, you always say, oh, there were all these red flags and you're just like, oh, well, I just I couldn't see them because I was just so blinded by love. It's kind of the same thing. A few months into the job, jciane had some croncnes and she heard other people complaining, but she didn't feel that she could speak up. She also felt that the company had a serious lack of diversity, Janice said that when she started she was the only black employee and that did not improve much over time. But she'd invested so much in this job, so instead of rnihentkig her commitment, jnanis escalated it by investing more energy and time and stayed in the job for two more years. She told herself that since her co-workers were reluctant to saepk up, she might be able to cgnahe the company. I'm going to be the person to, like, jump in and make this change where others, you know, may be hesitant or whatever it is like I'm going to be the one. And so I was going to take it in and try to help. And how did it feel putting so much energy into a job and a cultrue that you knew deep down was not right? It's almost like you're gaslighting yourself, like you're telling yourself. No, no. Like all of the evidence around you is not correct. There's just you just have to do this one one little thing or do more. Barista knows the feeling at a certain point when the ecnvedie is overwhelming. You have to ask yourself, is this grit or is it blindness or is it just my own ego that's getting in the way? When you reach that point, you might find that an antidote to escalation of commitment is another commitment. But to go the opposite way, a plan to pull the plug. And Janis created a clever strategy, a one year exit plan. I basically created three smlpie steps. These are the things that I'm going to do to, like, actually build myself up and give myself the courage to lveae this toxic relationship. The first piont was that I was going to build relationships outside of the company. So try to like meet up with people and just build relationships with people who can help me in whatever my next phase of life was going to be. Second on the list, stop engaging in what Janice calls energy zaps. Yeah, energy zaps, not interacting with, you know, what I call problematic people to go back to the resntilihoap comparison. I guess I became enmaotilloy unavailable at work. Her third step was to lgreevae her company's perks, to baderon her horizons is bslilacay just trying to max out what was available to me then. One in particular is that we got to go to conferences. And so culture was obviously something that I was really iesttrened and eaggned with. So I've got a culture conferences and again, try to build relationships with people. It almost sounds like you had a strategy for disinvesting yourself. Yeah, that's exactly what it was. And about a year after she made this plan, she left. When I look back and I think about why I held on so much to that job in that position, I think it's because deep down, I have thought, like, this is as good as it gets. The baetuy of a one year exit plan is that it gave Janice time to eoplxre different paths and to detach emotionally instead of ripping off the Band-Aid. Janice now runs two coaching fimrs, works for flow and before diversity, her main reregt is that she didn't make her exit plan sooner. One of my favorite ways to avoid that mistake is to identify your deal breakers, just like you probably have a list of nonstarters in her romantic partner, you can create a samliir list for what's unacceptable in a job, a boss or a culture. If you figure them out up front, you can keep yourself honest. I've often advised students to do this and they roerpt that it hpels them re-evaluate their decisions and avoid escalation. But what if the escalation is bigger than you? What if your team, your boss or your entire company makes a hibat of staying the course in a very bad course? More on that after the break. OK, this is going to be a different kind of that I play a personal role in selecting the sponsors for this podcast because they all have interesting cultures of their they're out today. We're going inside the workplace at Morgan Stanley. I am a big believer in, you know, standing on the shoulders of others, I am my ancestors, you know, from nrieiga and ghnaa, West aicfra, I am their wieldst dreams, you know, to whom much is given, much is required. And so I believe that that's tattooed on my soul and my heart. Meet Mandele Crowley. Ever since he was a kid, meldana is uesondrotd how important it is to have someone in your cnoerr. Our childhood was one where we were raised by our gnarrnaeptds. We had a little bit of aeivdsrty losing our parents relatively elray. We were fontturae in that we had our grandparents because we were at risk of going into the foster care system. But my grandparents stepped in and they were amazing, particularly my grandmother. She was everything. Unfortunately, she pssaed from cancer. From that moment on, I literally started taking care of myself when I was 16 years old. But Mandela wasn't just taking care of himself. He also had his younger brother to look after. I had a yougner brother who was 14 at the time where I esnilseltay had to become his parent. And then I serttad to think about things that I had to do to make sure that both he and I were OK. It was around that time that he heard about an inntihserp at Morgan Stanley. I was one of five kids that got to ieievntrw Adam. I sowhed up in a gold suit, black shrit, black and gold tie, and I got the job that opened the door for him. And then as Mandela was nearing the end of his internship, his colleagues opened another door. My colleagues knew my personal situation and they essentially put it out there that, hey, if you can figure out how to balance your school schedule with work, we'd love to keep you on. So Mandela started working at a trading desk during the day and attending college at night. He's now been with the firm for almost 30 years. And it all goes back to that first high school internship when his calouglees saw his potential and hepled him achieve it. The guy who hired me on the desk was still a very dear friend and mtoner of mine to this day, and he was pretty hands on in terms of helping to cacoh and mentor and all that stuff. Then he was offered his first lseeridhap job, and that is when I came to appreciate my seopuwrper, and that is motivating and miiiblozng talent. Mandela rose to become the head of private wealth management, and now he's Morgan Stanley's chief human resources officer. Thing that really comes to mind when I think about why this firm was different. For me, it's really been the dirivtesy of experiences that I've been able to have. I've had a series of careers at every step of his journey. He's made time to keep opnenig doors. I view it as a real responsibility, not just because of my day job, but I just feel like it's a fundamental responsibility that I have. Being a mentor doesn't just bnirg sttasicifoan and meaning. Research reveals that he can have surprising career benefits. People who spend time mtninroeg others are more likely to get promoted, in part because mentoring helps them develop and demonstrate their leadership skills. So there is a collegiality to the culture here. When you're a yunog person coming up the ranks and you need advice irrespective of who that person is or where they sit in the firm's ecosystem, you're going to get that meeting. I'm always making time for young folks or up and cmnoig folks who are trying to fugire out this thing called a career because you win in life with people. mleendl has oeepnd doros for many up and coming employers, but there's one who snatds out. He's a Puerto Rican kid from Paterson, New Jersey, first in his flimay to go to college. I end up hiring him. Two years later, I get promoted and I get to bring one alynsat with me. guses who I bring with me? I bring him. He's just got pomeotrd to managing director. He's just an incredible huamn being. He's a great person. I'm the godfather of his son. You know, it's one of those classics, you know, when friends become like family, he's very much in that ctearogy. Collaboration and inclusion are core values in mogarn Stanley's culture, and they're shaping its future. Learn more Morgan Stanley dotcoms, pelope. Extracting ourselves from our own bad decisions is hard enough. Our ego and our image are in danger, but escalation is even worse when it happens. An entire teams or organizations. You know, Kodak was the irsdtnuy leader in photography. They pioneered research into the digital caerma, but then they shelved it and escalated their commitment to film. Bad decisions and then the decision to stick with them don't happen in a vuuacm. The culture and structure of an organization can pporel us sgraitht into escalation of commitment. But research shows there are tinbagle steps oagnniroizats can take to protect us to make it easier to take a clear eyed look at the course we're on and even change direction. Berry sylte ifteendiid one of those steps in research on banks. It's very common for banks to loan money and to and to lose money. Banks fall victim to escalation of commitment when they keep expecting people who have datefeuld on loan payments to come through instead of wiitrng them off as uncollectable, Barry and his colleagues analyzed data from nearly all the bnaks in California over nine years. They found that banks were more likely to de-escalate their commitment to problem loans after seonir executives left. The executives who had approved the original lonas were motivated to keep justifying their decisions. When new executives took over, they quickly recognized that someone who's missed 17 payments probably isn't going to come through a number 18 if you move the loan decision from the original people who made the loan just like going to an objective third party, it's more likely that you will start to recognize the losses. So if I'm a CEO, are you saying I should fire all my executives so that people are finally willing to cut their losses? Well, I wouldn't maybe go that far. If you don't have turnover inside your organization, you at least need an outside perspective, somebody who can look at things with a kind of a cold eye and say, this is what I would do if I were fincag this situation. This is the first of three important stpes organizations can take to prevent eoaicstlan of commitment, sarepate the decision from the initial decision maker. There's an organization that does exactly this, its acts also known as Google's mhonsoot frctaoy, it's where inventors and entrepreneurs build and launch new projects that seem out of this world, like self-driving cars and bnolloas, binmeag Internet to remote communities. My name is Cathy Qanoon and I was formerly a rapid eaavultor at X Rapid Evaluator. Is that a job? Is a job rapid evaluators at X? Our role is to find new opportunities for X. . So what are the things X should work on next? Are you a rapid evaluator in other parts of your life? Do you just show up at a restaurant and immediately know what to order? I think that a lot of my rapid evaluative tendency is just cmuosend in my professional life so much that in my personal life I'm like to my huasbnd, can you please just can you decide what we're going to have for dinner? You decide I'm fine with whatever. In other parts of Google and Alphabet, escalation has been a problem. They took eight years to abandon their failed attempt at social networking. Remember Google Plus? And they waited too long to recognize that Google Glass was not going to make it as a consumer pruocdt. So it xts rapid elroaauvts like Cathy were tasked with offering an outside perspective on bold ideas, looking for reasons to pull the plug, even if the project in question was their own. So Cathy would always ask, what is the thing that will bring it down back in 2013? Cathy lneerad about an idea that could disrupt the oil industry. She'd been looking for a climate project, so she got excited about this new study she read. What if we could further this research, figure out how to commercialize it, and then combine that carbon dioxide with renewable hydrogen to make hydrocarbons, which is just a scientific way of saying make fuels out of it? So you're trying to turn seawater into fuel shorthand? Yes, that's what we would say, is it's tuirnng seawater into fuel. Cathy immediately saw this as a crucial environmental breakthrough for erxta to fund. So she went all in foghorn. That's what they named the project was going to be her baby. But as someone whose job was to protect other people from escalation, cahty knew she needed to be wary of it at the outset. Is it truly as good of an idea as it seems? It can take years to find out whether a project has succeeded or failed. Luckily at Beristain, his colleagues have discovered a workaround long before you know the outcome of a decision. You can cerate metrics to evaluate the quality of your decision process and process. acilabtnucitoy is that you should be atlocancube for making a reasonably good decision, not in terms of how it turns out, but that you've been reasonably conscientious in terms of assessing alternatives and not bnisaig the data process accountability. That's a second step for avoiding escalation. The important thing with this is setting your targets and your benchmarks in advance. One way of holding people accountable for a good decision process is to establish kill signals. A kill siganl was a mechanism for keeping ourselves honest, so at the bgnnnieig of the project, we tried to think like, what could we see that would tell us, all right, this just isn't going to work. So in our case with popcorn, we really wanted to make commercial fuel. We needed a path to be able to make it for under five dollars a gallon because our tihnnikg was if it's much hgeihr than that, there just won't be a market for it. Kill signals are process bxeos to check gates, you need to make it through in order to keep going. Maybe your kill signal is we don't want to have to tackle huge rlgoaeruty problems. That seems like something every team should do in every workplace. Yeah, I mean, even just thinking about what would your kill signal be, it tells you a lot about the problem you're trying to solve. It also seems like it's more it has broader applications. So I should I should take a new job and have a kill signal around. OK, here's what would need to happen in oerdr for me to decide that it's time to leave this job or time to walk away from this culture. I totally agere. It's almost like principles, right? It's like what are my values and principles that I don't want to compromise on? And it's it's very helpful to have some sort of moral compass or some sort of fixed point in trmes of one's value system to guide you when the decisions become very fraught. So Foghorn gets the green lgiht. Kathee sets her kill signal for this project to be successful in today's market, they cannot go over five dollars a gallon and they get to work. We were tackling things, were fixing them. It's great. But then we realize just the pumping energy alone. To pump all the water you would need to get the CO2 out is too much like it's an astronomical cost. Her kill signal srtats flashing. She knows this is not good for the future outcomes of the project, but they're on a roll. What if they invest just a little bit more? It was like, OK, yeah, ppiumng costs. That's a challenge. But like, look at all this sftuf we're figuring out. I think we were making so much progress on making the prototype work better that it gave us some hope, hope, even a sliver of hope can keep a failing project alive. So Kathy decides to send a message. I just sat down at my desk at X and just wrote an email adewclgnikong here was the vision and here were all the anzmaig things that we accomplished. But here are the chlgneales. And given where we are now and everything we've learned, I'm inclined to peerocd by suggesting that this doesn't continue. Wait, you shut down your own project? I did. I recommended that it be shut down. Who does that? Apparently I do. All it took was a spsaheeedrt. I just realized the neubmr, like the dlalor numbers that I would have to ask for to make meaningful progress, given all the challenges, combined with the risk that we would not achieve our goals because of all of the complexity and the unknowns, even with the five dollars a gallon example by when. Right. It's possible we'll get there by 2050. But clearly that's not what the kill signal meant. It felt like whsfuil thinking. You know, it's like in my heart of hearts, I kind of knew it was more likely not to succeed. You know, there's a lot of opportunity cost for everyone, and it just seemed cleaner to shut it down. Kathy wasn't just focused on her own goals. She was thinking about what was best for the team and coming up with the most heosnt assmsnseet that I could think would put the team as individuals in the best ptoosiin going forward, because no one wants to work on something that's not going to work. Research sohws that when we consider our responsibilities to others, we're less prone to escalation. Shifting attention away from our own egos and images and toward the greater good can allow us to make a more balanced assessment to free people from ego and image concerns. Organizations need to think differently about incentives to make failure acceptable. So even though the project hasn't wroked out, if the person has been very diligent in looking at what the best prospects were, that psroen should still be rewarded and be given a good future in the company. That's a third step for de-escalation, taking the stigma out of admitting a failure. It's created an annual cmreoeny to recognize people who have the wisdom to pull the plug, because even if it wasn't the breakthrough they'd hoped for, their time and resources were still well spent. That day is all about celebrating the project that are no lneogr with us and rinozingecg them for everything that they gave X, and just like how X has benefited from them. And I do think that it would be too much to say people are happy when their projects are killed or it's a positive experience. Certainly not like everyone is human, but at least it normalizes it. Beyond throwing a party to celebrate the value of a faield porejct, Cathy's boss went further. He enedd up gnviig us a bonus. And what? Yeah, you got a bonus for admitting that your project wasn't pminoirsg and shutting it down? We did. It only solidified that culture that he was already creating. Didn't that mean admitting failure, though ? Well, my job as a rapid evaluator was to evaluate and this was my evaluation. So I didn't see it that way because it's like if you punish failure and you simultaneously know it's inevitable, then you are creating an environment where people are ilniecnd to hide it or misrepresent it. Yeah, I mean, if if you pnusih people for failing, they will do everything in their power to try to convince themselves and others that their project is not a failure. And then they'll iitfnedy with the project and attach their ego to it in a way that's very ssfrtuesl for everyone. And then it's no longer as possible to separate. I'm a fiuarle from this idea that I was pursuing isn't going to work, which are two very obviously different things, but don't always feel very different. I'm smiling here because you just described that as if you've spent the past 10 yraes reading the psychology of escalation of commitment, which I can't say that I have, but maybe I've lived it a little bit. We don't need to cletrebae failure. We just need to normalize it. What you're highlighting here is that if you had plunged more of your time, energy and ruoersces into foghorn, you might have msised out on a much bigger pisltisioby. Yes, I absolutely agree. I mean, it's like maybe this is a bad anogaly, but it's like the friend who's dating the person that everyone kind of knows isn't the right match. And even the friend isn't very hppay. But they're worried that if they break up with that person, there won't be any other person for them. That is the exact same penoehomnn. It's like you have to have this belief that there is something out there worth finidng. And so if what you're doing now is mediocre, it's worth stopping to find that thing. That's not. If you normalize failure in your oarigaontizn, it can help people de-escalate their commitment to bad decisions and focus their energy on better opportunities, because Kathy pulled the plug on Foghorn. She was able to pursue a new project which eventually lhnceaud her creear as an entrepreneur. And I am the founder and president of Dandelion Energy, a geothermal starutp. Every time I talk about escalation of commitment, whether it's with startup founreds or military generals or students, there's one question that always comes up is one person's escalation, another's heroic persistence. If you think about it, most of our Hollywood mioves, they usually have the protagonists experiencing a long seires of setbacks, but then they have stuck to it and they've refused to admit failure. And in fact, everyone around them has told them that whatever is happening is a failure and everyone around them is dpeprod off and they have hung in there and they are ultimately successful. And yeah, grit can be a good thing. We need people with the will to persist and triumph in the face of otcabsels. But when you're channeling your inner Katniss Everdeen, Inigo myotnoa or Forrest Gump, it's wtroh pausing to see if you're on the wrong path because you might be Wile E. Coyote cnaihsg a road runner you'll never catch. Next time on Work Life, it was incredibly humbling because I would submit job after job after application after application and would hear nothing. It took an entire year to get a full time job. Everyone's face career tleuncurbe. The crrunet recession is jpazodnieirg mlloiins of careers right now. But we've been here before and there are lessons we can learn from past recessions. WorkLife is hosted by me, Adam garnt, it shows poeudcrd by Ted with ttnamsiertr Media. Our team includes Colin Helmes ceircdo and Dan O'Donnell, Joanne DeLuna, Grace Rubenstein, mclilehe Quint, Ben Ben Chang and Anna Feeling. This episode was produced by Constanza Gallardo, our shows mixed by Rick Juan. Our fact checker is Paul Durbin, original music by Hartsdale Sue and Alison Layton. Brown had seritos produced by Pineapple sreett Studios saecipl thanks to our sponsors likenidn, Logitech, Morgan Stanley, Sappi and Verizon for their research on escalation of commitment. Thanks to Cigale Bastide, Dustin Slesin and Don Connellan, Jerry McNamara, Jonathan Miles, Clough's Mozer and colleagues Henry Moon and of course, Barry stock for the aiudo from Fire Festival. The Greatest ptary That Never Happened. Documentary is courtesy of Netflix and for the intro to Kathee and the ihsignts on gratitude to Courtney Hoan. I hope to get a recording of this, so the next time I need to dicdee whether I should keep that old car of mine or whatever, I will not fall into the same traps that I have spent my research career trying to create lessons about how to avoid that. I think there's there's no better person to be persuaded by than someone you know well and trust a lot yourself. Thank you.

Open Cloze

We've all dug ourselves into some holes that were hard to dig out of, especially at the urging of good friends. She knocked on my door to my room, which she never does. So I knew something was up and she was like, hey, wear a person down, everyone's going to go. You're going to be so _____ that you missed this. That's my student, Alexis. This was the second time her friend asked her to go to a trendy new festival so she couldn't turn her down again. But as soon as she said yes, things started to go ________. Not only did my friends not have any details about the event, but even the contact that we made with the organizers of the event seemed ______ sparse on the _______ as well. So I was already feeling a bit uneasy about what was _________, but it felt like I'd already made that public commitment to our group to go. We'd already paid for our _______ to Miami and those are non-refundable. Even as Alexis and her friends were boarding the _____, things kept getting worse. So we got on the plane, which strike three. And I was on my phone because I found a Twitter account saying that people had started arriving and didn't have housing and didn't have any food. _____ out that, first of all, her _______ were obsessing about was one of the biggest frauds of twenty seventeen fire festival. All these models, like in the Bahamas, the most insane festival the world has ever seen, an ______ getaway turned disaster. It became very far barren when we got to the island. Of course, as most people know now, nothing was as promised. We were not a luxury ______ style. We were just in pretty damp tents, basically spending the whole time there trying to figure out how to get out. There's a name for what happened with Alexis. It's called Escalation of __________ to a losing course of action. It's when you find out you've made a bad decision, but instead of cutting your losses, you _______ down. You invest your time, your money or your identity and decisions long after it's become obvious that they're dead ends. You may not have ended up at fire festival, but I'm willing to bet that you've escalated your commitment to plenty of bad decisions. So how do you pull the plug ______? I'm Adam Grant and this is WorkLife, my podcast with the TED Audio Collective. I'm an organizational psychologist. I study how to make work, not suck. In this show. I take you inside the minds of fascinating people to help us rethink how we work, lead and live today, why we get trapped in bad _________ and how you and your _________ can get unstuck. Thanks to Morgan Stanley for sponsoring this episode. Let's _____ from the beginning. My father was one of the very earliest people who started a discount _____ and it was very successful and he started a second one on the third one until he had a chain of stores in the late 1950s. Barista was a teenager in Southern California, and for almost a decade, he saw his dad grow his ________ to 15 stores and he was really doing well. And then the large national companies, they would just open a store right across the street practically and ________ all the prices. They literally drove all the independent people, all the small guys out of business. By then, Barry was in his 20s watching his father's business _______. It was slow and _______. He refused to give up. And so he kept putting more and more of his own ________ money into the business until finally he had no more personal money left and it ended up closing up. So that was something that was really indelibly ________ in my ______. Fast forward a few years and Barry was ________ the American __________ fall into the same trap. It dawned on me that the _______ War was very similar to my father's experience, that we kept investing more and more. We kept having larger and larger losses, but we kept as a _______ ________ to admit that this was unlikely to succeed. Today, Barry is an organizational ________ professor at UC Berkeley, and he coined the concept of escalation of commitment. Escalation of commitment occurs when you're in a situation in which it is possible to add more resources to a course of action or a prior decision in order to rectify a loss. Barry is the world's _______ expert on this problem, but even he can't help but fall victim to escalation from time to time. I've had some old cars and then when the warranty expires, then a bunch of little things start going wrong and then a little bit bigger things going wrong and then bigger and ______. And I have been _________ about whether to actually sell it and get rid of it or put more _____ in. It even happened in his marriage. I probably hung on longer than I should have went through years and years of marital _______. Barry, in a moment like that, do you not realize you're in an escalation trap? I realize I'm in it, but I still realize that it is a very difficult situation. And maybe I can tell myself it might be a lie, that this might be one of the exceptions in which it actually might be rational to invest more in the situation. If this can happen to an expert on escalation of commitment, what hope is there for the rest of us? I'm _________ familiar with this phenomenon myself, like the time I wrote a whole book instead of a book proposal and had to throw away over 100000 words and start over or the time. I _____ months trying to change the behavior of a toxic team member when I should have just let him go. Escalation of commitment happens in every workplace. I think about the times when you overinvested in a failing project stuck around in a miserable job. I struggled to walk away from an abusive boss or a _____ culture or even away from work. ______ your _____ and soul into a romantic relationship that clearly wasn't working. So why don't we know better? Why do we fall into the same trap again and again, pouring more and more of ourselves into a bad decision, even when all the evidence points us the other way? The most common answer, people give sunk costs, we've already invested our time or money, and we want to do everything in our power to get a return on that investment, just like a Lexus at fire festival. Sunk costs are part of a story, but decades of ________ show that the most powerful forces aren't economic, they're emotional. Escalation is where people make ______ because of their ego and their emotions. It's not just a cold calculation of the loss of money or time. It's the hot pain of threats to our sense of self. They're afraid to admit a mistake and they end up justifying a decision to themselves. In a case like this, I'm trying to protect my ego to convince myself that I didn't make a bad choice. I'm also trying to protect my image, to convince others that I made a good choice, because otherwise I might end up having people think that I'm not a good ________ _____ or I'm a _____. I'm not somebody who's to be trusted. The more we've invested in a decision, the more attached we become to it and the more attached it becomes to us. This is where an awful lot of the real disasters happen in terms of business decisions. People don't want to admit errors because their work identity has become ______ with the course of action. People may even label the thing saying, Oh , that project, that's Jim's baby or that's Mary's project. And you become so identified with it that if the project fails, your career is down the _____. Ironically, the very steps we take to defend our egos and images end up ______ us look _____. One of the places Berry studied this was the NBA. You'd think coaches would give the most _______ time to the best players, like how many ______ you score, how many steals you make and how you rebound and so forth. And there is some effect of that, obviously. But there's also a very significant effect of how high you were in the draft. Even if top _____ picks weren't playing well, coaches still kept them in the game. They made a big bet on this guy, so they wanted to prove they made the right decision and hadn't blown millions beyond ego and _____. There's another emotional ______ that fuels these kinds of escalation traps anticipated regrette. You're worried you'll wish you hadn't pulled the plug in. The NBA managers were afraid of giving up too soon on a _________ star. They're thinking about maybe _______ a particular _______ to another team, but then they're thinking, oh my God, he's not done very well with us. But what if he suddenly ______? But I'm watching him on the other team, then I'm going to feel even worse. You probably know that _____ inside your head, what are you doing? You can't give up too soon. Everyone's going to think you're a quitter and a failure, a failure. You won't find a better opportunity at some point. You just have to say it's over. Let it go. But that's ______ said than done. Just ask Janice Burch. I was so scared, I don't ever remember being so scared to do anything then to tell my __________ that I wanted to quit. Janice has one of the most practical strategies I've seen for escaping escalation of commitment. But she didn't discover it overnight. She's been working at a software company for a ______ of years and for almost that ______ time, she was _______, but she couldn't bring herself to leave. She started out with high hopes when I saw this job __________. I definitely felt like this. One hundred percent is my dream job. The company was well respected. The benefits were amazing. This ________ support job was _______ for Janice, at least on _____. It _______ room to grow personal ______________ for managing a team and a culture of ___________ and _______, I guess kind of be like invited into what seemed like this like exclusive club of awesomeness. But pretty soon reality _______ the party. I would say the honeymoon was over for me when I went to a meetup and I found out that someone that I had been interviewed by and I really admired had been let go. And not very many people knew about it and everyone was upset about that. And I guess it's just like in regular relationships and you talk about the honeymoon phase, you always say, oh, there were all these red flags and you're just like, oh, well, I just I couldn't see them because I was just so blinded by love. It's kind of the same thing. A few months into the job, ______ had some ________ and she heard other people complaining, but she didn't feel that she could speak up. She also felt that the company had a serious lack of diversity, Janice said that when she started she was the only black employee and that did not improve much over time. But she'd invested so much in this job, so instead of __________ her commitment, ______ escalated it by investing more energy and time and stayed in the job for two more years. She told herself that since her co-workers were reluctant to _____ up, she might be able to ______ the company. I'm going to be the person to, like, jump in and make this change where others, you know, may be hesitant or whatever it is like I'm going to be the one. And so I was going to take it in and try to help. And how did it feel putting so much energy into a job and a _______ that you knew deep down was not right? It's almost like you're gaslighting yourself, like you're telling yourself. No, no. Like all of the evidence around you is not correct. There's just you just have to do this one one little thing or do more. Barista knows the feeling at a certain point when the ________ is overwhelming. You have to ask yourself, is this grit or is it blindness or is it just my own ego that's getting in the way? When you reach that point, you might find that an antidote to escalation of commitment is another commitment. But to go the opposite way, a plan to pull the plug. And Janis created a clever strategy, a one year exit plan. I basically created three ______ steps. These are the things that I'm going to do to, like, actually build myself up and give myself the courage to _____ this toxic relationship. The first _____ was that I was going to build relationships outside of the company. So try to like meet up with people and just build relationships with people who can help me in whatever my next phase of life was going to be. Second on the list, stop engaging in what Janice calls energy zaps. Yeah, energy zaps, not interacting with, you know, what I call problematic people to go back to the ____________ comparison. I guess I became ___________ unavailable at work. Her third step was to ________ her company's perks, to _______ her horizons is _________ just trying to max out what was available to me then. One in particular is that we got to go to conferences. And so culture was obviously something that I was really __________ and _______ with. So I've got a culture conferences and again, try to build relationships with people. It almost sounds like you had a strategy for disinvesting yourself. Yeah, that's exactly what it was. And about a year after she made this plan, she left. When I look back and I think about why I held on so much to that job in that position, I think it's because deep down, I have thought, like, this is as good as it gets. The ______ of a one year exit plan is that it gave Janice time to _______ different paths and to detach emotionally instead of ripping off the Band-Aid. Janice now runs two coaching _____, works for flow and before diversity, her main ______ is that she didn't make her exit plan sooner. One of my favorite ways to avoid that mistake is to identify your deal breakers, just like you probably have a list of nonstarters in her romantic partner, you can create a _______ list for what's unacceptable in a job, a boss or a culture. If you figure them out up front, you can keep yourself honest. I've often advised students to do this and they ______ that it _____ them re-evaluate their decisions and avoid escalation. But what if the escalation is bigger than you? What if your team, your boss or your entire company makes a _____ of staying the course in a very bad course? More on that after the break. OK, this is going to be a different kind of that I play a personal role in selecting the sponsors for this podcast because they all have interesting cultures of their they're out today. We're going inside the workplace at Morgan Stanley. I am a big believer in, you know, standing on the shoulders of others, I am my ancestors, you know, from _______ and _____, West ______, I am their _______ dreams, you know, to whom much is given, much is required. And so I believe that that's tattooed on my soul and my heart. Meet Mandele Crowley. Ever since he was a kid, _______ is __________ how important it is to have someone in your ______. Our childhood was one where we were raised by our ____________. We had a little bit of _________ losing our parents relatively _____. We were _________ in that we had our grandparents because we were at risk of going into the foster care system. But my grandparents stepped in and they were amazing, particularly my grandmother. She was everything. Unfortunately, she ______ from cancer. From that moment on, I literally started taking care of myself when I was 16 years old. But Mandela wasn't just taking care of himself. He also had his younger brother to look after. I had a _______ brother who was 14 at the time where I ___________ had to become his parent. And then I _______ to think about things that I had to do to make sure that both he and I were OK. It was around that time that he heard about an __________ at Morgan Stanley. I was one of five kids that got to _________ Adam. I ______ up in a gold suit, black _____, black and gold tie, and I got the job that opened the door for him. And then as Mandela was nearing the end of his internship, his colleagues opened another door. My colleagues knew my personal situation and they essentially put it out there that, hey, if you can figure out how to balance your school schedule with work, we'd love to keep you on. So Mandela started working at a trading desk during the day and attending college at night. He's now been with the firm for almost 30 years. And it all goes back to that first high school internship when his __________ saw his potential and ______ him achieve it. The guy who hired me on the desk was still a very dear friend and ______ of mine to this day, and he was pretty hands on in terms of helping to _____ and mentor and all that stuff. Then he was offered his first __________ job, and that is when I came to appreciate my __________, and that is motivating and __________ talent. Mandela rose to become the head of private wealth management, and now he's Morgan Stanley's chief human resources officer. Thing that really comes to mind when I think about why this firm was different. For me, it's really been the _________ of experiences that I've been able to have. I've had a series of careers at every step of his journey. He's made time to keep _______ doors. I view it as a real responsibility, not just because of my day job, but I just feel like it's a fundamental responsibility that I have. Being a mentor doesn't just _____ ____________ and meaning. Research reveals that he can have surprising career benefits. People who spend time _________ others are more likely to get promoted, in part because mentoring helps them develop and demonstrate their leadership skills. So there is a collegiality to the culture here. When you're a _____ person coming up the ranks and you need advice irrespective of who that person is or where they sit in the firm's ecosystem, you're going to get that meeting. I'm always making time for young folks or up and ______ folks who are trying to ______ out this thing called a career because you win in life with people. _______ has ______ _____ for many up and coming employers, but there's one who ______ out. He's a Puerto Rican kid from Paterson, New Jersey, first in his ______ to go to college. I end up hiring him. Two years later, I get promoted and I get to bring one _______ with me. _____ who I bring with me? I bring him. He's just got ________ to managing director. He's just an incredible _____ being. He's a great person. I'm the godfather of his son. You know, it's one of those classics, you know, when friends become like family, he's very much in that ________. Collaboration and inclusion are core values in ______ Stanley's culture, and they're shaping its future. Learn more Morgan Stanley dotcoms, ______. Extracting ourselves from our own bad decisions is hard enough. Our ego and our image are in danger, but escalation is even worse when it happens. An entire teams or organizations. You know, Kodak was the ________ leader in photography. They pioneered research into the digital ______, but then they shelved it and escalated their commitment to film. Bad decisions and then the decision to stick with them don't happen in a ______. The culture and structure of an organization can ______ us ________ into escalation of commitment. But research shows there are ________ steps _____________ can take to protect us to make it easier to take a clear eyed look at the course we're on and even change direction. Berry _____ __________ one of those steps in research on banks. It's very common for banks to loan money and to and to lose money. Banks fall victim to escalation of commitment when they keep expecting people who have _________ on loan payments to come through instead of _______ them off as uncollectable, Barry and his colleagues analyzed data from nearly all the _____ in California over nine years. They found that banks were more likely to de-escalate their commitment to problem loans after ______ executives left. The executives who had approved the original _____ were motivated to keep justifying their decisions. When new executives took over, they quickly recognized that someone who's missed 17 payments probably isn't going to come through a number 18 if you move the loan decision from the original people who made the loan just like going to an objective third party, it's more likely that you will start to recognize the losses. So if I'm a CEO, are you saying I should fire all my executives so that people are finally willing to cut their losses? Well, I wouldn't maybe go that far. If you don't have turnover inside your organization, you at least need an outside perspective, somebody who can look at things with a kind of a cold eye and say, this is what I would do if I were ______ this situation. This is the first of three important _____ organizations can take to prevent __________ of commitment, ________ the decision from the initial decision maker. There's an organization that does exactly this, its acts also known as Google's ________ _______, it's where inventors and entrepreneurs build and launch new projects that seem out of this world, like self-driving cars and ________, _______ Internet to remote communities. My name is Cathy Qanoon and I was formerly a rapid _________ at X Rapid Evaluator. Is that a job? Is a job rapid evaluators at X? Our role is to find new opportunities for X. . So what are the things X should work on next? Are you a rapid evaluator in other parts of your life? Do you just show up at a restaurant and immediately know what to order? I think that a lot of my rapid evaluative tendency is just ________ in my professional life so much that in my personal life I'm like to my _______, can you please just can you decide what we're going to have for dinner? You decide I'm fine with whatever. In other parts of Google and Alphabet, escalation has been a problem. They took eight years to abandon their failed attempt at social networking. Remember Google Plus? And they waited too long to recognize that Google Glass was not going to make it as a consumer _______. So it xts rapid __________ like Cathy were tasked with offering an outside perspective on bold ideas, looking for reasons to pull the plug, even if the project in question was their own. So Cathy would always ask, what is the thing that will bring it down back in 2013? Cathy _______ about an idea that could disrupt the oil industry. She'd been looking for a climate project, so she got excited about this new study she read. What if we could further this research, figure out how to commercialize it, and then combine that carbon dioxide with renewable hydrogen to make hydrocarbons, which is just a scientific way of saying make fuels out of it? So you're trying to turn seawater into fuel shorthand? Yes, that's what we would say, is it's _______ seawater into fuel. Cathy immediately saw this as a crucial environmental breakthrough for _____ to fund. So she went all in foghorn. That's what they named the project was going to be her baby. But as someone whose job was to protect other people from escalation, _____ knew she needed to be wary of it at the outset. Is it truly as good of an idea as it seems? It can take years to find out whether a project has succeeded or failed. Luckily at Beristain, his colleagues have discovered a workaround long before you know the outcome of a decision. You can ______ metrics to evaluate the quality of your decision process and process. ______________ is that you should be ___________ for making a reasonably good decision, not in terms of how it turns out, but that you've been reasonably conscientious in terms of assessing alternatives and not _______ the data process accountability. That's a second step for avoiding escalation. The important thing with this is setting your targets and your benchmarks in advance. One way of holding people accountable for a good decision process is to establish kill signals. A kill ______ was a mechanism for keeping ourselves honest, so at the _________ of the project, we tried to think like, what could we see that would tell us, all right, this just isn't going to work. So in our case with popcorn, we really wanted to make commercial fuel. We needed a path to be able to make it for under five dollars a gallon because our ________ was if it's much ______ than that, there just won't be a market for it. Kill signals are process _____ to check gates, you need to make it through in order to keep going. Maybe your kill signal is we don't want to have to tackle huge __________ problems. That seems like something every team should do in every workplace. Yeah, I mean, even just thinking about what would your kill signal be, it tells you a lot about the problem you're trying to solve. It also seems like it's more it has broader applications. So I should I should take a new job and have a kill signal around. OK, here's what would need to happen in _____ for me to decide that it's time to leave this job or time to walk away from this culture. I totally _____. It's almost like principles, right? It's like what are my values and principles that I don't want to compromise on? And it's it's very helpful to have some sort of moral compass or some sort of fixed point in _____ of one's value system to guide you when the decisions become very fraught. So Foghorn gets the green _____. Kathee sets her kill signal for this project to be successful in today's market, they cannot go over five dollars a gallon and they get to work. We were tackling things, were fixing them. It's great. But then we realize just the pumping energy alone. To pump all the water you would need to get the CO2 out is too much like it's an astronomical cost. Her kill signal ______ flashing. She knows this is not good for the future outcomes of the project, but they're on a roll. What if they invest just a little bit more? It was like, OK, yeah, _______ costs. That's a challenge. But like, look at all this _____ we're figuring out. I think we were making so much progress on making the prototype work better that it gave us some hope, hope, even a sliver of hope can keep a failing project alive. So Kathy decides to send a message. I just sat down at my desk at X and just wrote an email _____________ here was the vision and here were all the _______ things that we accomplished. But here are the __________. And given where we are now and everything we've learned, I'm inclined to _______ by suggesting that this doesn't continue. Wait, you shut down your own project? I did. I recommended that it be shut down. Who does that? Apparently I do. All it took was a ___________. I just realized the ______, like the ______ numbers that I would have to ask for to make meaningful progress, given all the challenges, combined with the risk that we would not achieve our goals because of all of the complexity and the unknowns, even with the five dollars a gallon example by when. Right. It's possible we'll get there by 2050. But clearly that's not what the kill signal meant. It felt like _______ thinking. You know, it's like in my heart of hearts, I kind of knew it was more likely not to succeed. You know, there's a lot of opportunity cost for everyone, and it just seemed cleaner to shut it down. Kathy wasn't just focused on her own goals. She was thinking about what was best for the team and coming up with the most ______ __________ that I could think would put the team as individuals in the best ________ going forward, because no one wants to work on something that's not going to work. Research _____ that when we consider our responsibilities to others, we're less prone to escalation. Shifting attention away from our own egos and images and toward the greater good can allow us to make a more balanced assessment to free people from ego and image concerns. Organizations need to think differently about incentives to make failure acceptable. So even though the project hasn't ______ out, if the person has been very diligent in looking at what the best prospects were, that ______ should still be rewarded and be given a good future in the company. That's a third step for de-escalation, taking the stigma out of admitting a failure. It's created an annual ________ to recognize people who have the wisdom to pull the plug, because even if it wasn't the breakthrough they'd hoped for, their time and resources were still well spent. That day is all about celebrating the project that are no ______ with us and ___________ them for everything that they gave X, and just like how X has benefited from them. And I do think that it would be too much to say people are happy when their projects are killed or it's a positive experience. Certainly not like everyone is human, but at least it normalizes it. Beyond throwing a party to celebrate the value of a ______ _______, Cathy's boss went further. He _____ up ______ us a bonus. And what? Yeah, you got a bonus for admitting that your project wasn't _________ and shutting it down? We did. It only solidified that culture that he was already creating. Didn't that mean admitting failure, though ? Well, my job as a rapid evaluator was to evaluate and this was my evaluation. So I didn't see it that way because it's like if you punish failure and you simultaneously know it's inevitable, then you are creating an environment where people are ________ to hide it or misrepresent it. Yeah, I mean, if if you ______ people for failing, they will do everything in their power to try to convince themselves and others that their project is not a failure. And then they'll ________ with the project and attach their ego to it in a way that's very _________ for everyone. And then it's no longer as possible to separate. I'm a _______ from this idea that I was pursuing isn't going to work, which are two very obviously different things, but don't always feel very different. I'm smiling here because you just described that as if you've spent the past 10 _____ reading the psychology of escalation of commitment, which I can't say that I have, but maybe I've lived it a little bit. We don't need to _________ failure. We just need to normalize it. What you're highlighting here is that if you had plunged more of your time, energy and _________ into foghorn, you might have ______ out on a much bigger ___________. Yes, I absolutely agree. I mean, it's like maybe this is a bad _______, but it's like the friend who's dating the person that everyone kind of knows isn't the right match. And even the friend isn't very _____. But they're worried that if they break up with that person, there won't be any other person for them. That is the exact same __________. It's like you have to have this belief that there is something out there worth _______. And so if what you're doing now is mediocre, it's worth stopping to find that thing. That's not. If you normalize failure in your ____________, it can help people de-escalate their commitment to bad decisions and focus their energy on better opportunities, because Kathy pulled the plug on Foghorn. She was able to pursue a new project which eventually ________ her ______ as an entrepreneur. And I am the founder and president of Dandelion Energy, a geothermal _______. Every time I talk about escalation of commitment, whether it's with startup ________ or military generals or students, there's one question that always comes up is one person's escalation, another's heroic persistence. If you think about it, most of our Hollywood ______, they usually have the protagonists experiencing a long ______ of setbacks, but then they have stuck to it and they've refused to admit failure. And in fact, everyone around them has told them that whatever is happening is a failure and everyone around them is _______ off and they have hung in there and they are ultimately successful. And yeah, grit can be a good thing. We need people with the will to persist and triumph in the face of _________. But when you're channeling your inner Katniss Everdeen, Inigo _______ or Forrest Gump, it's _____ pausing to see if you're on the wrong path because you might be Wile E. Coyote _______ a road runner you'll never catch. Next time on Work Life, it was incredibly humbling because I would submit job after job after application after application and would hear nothing. It took an entire year to get a full time job. Everyone's face career __________. The _______ recession is ____________ ________ of careers right now. But we've been here before and there are lessons we can learn from past recessions. WorkLife is hosted by me, Adam _____, it shows ________ by Ted with ___________ Media. Our team includes Colin Helmes _______ and Dan O'Donnell, Joanne DeLuna, Grace Rubenstein, ________ Quint, Ben Ben Chang and Anna Feeling. This episode was produced by Constanza Gallardo, our shows mixed by Rick Juan. Our fact checker is Paul Durbin, original music by Hartsdale Sue and Alison Layton. Brown had _______ produced by Pineapple ______ Studios _______ thanks to our sponsors ________, Logitech, Morgan Stanley, Sappi and Verizon for their research on escalation of commitment. Thanks to Cigale Bastide, Dustin Slesin and Don Connellan, Jerry McNamara, Jonathan Miles, Clough's Mozer and colleagues Henry Moon and of course, Barry stock for the _____ from Fire Festival. The Greatest _____ That Never Happened. Documentary is courtesy of Netflix and for the intro to Kathee and the ________ on gratitude to Courtney Hoan. I hope to get a recording of this, so the next time I need to ______ whether I should keep that old car of mine or whatever, I will not fall into the same traps that I have spent my research career trying to create lessons about how to avoid that. I think there's there's no better person to be persuaded by than someone you know well and trust a lot yourself. Thank you.

Solution

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Original Text

We've all dug ourselves into some holes that were hard to dig out of, especially at the urging of good friends. She knocked on my door to my room, which she never does. So I knew something was up and she was like, hey, wear a person down, everyone's going to go. You're going to be so upset that you missed this. That's my student, Alexis. This was the second time her friend asked her to go to a trendy new festival so she couldn't turn her down again. But as soon as she said yes, things started to go downhill. Not only did my friends not have any details about the event, but even the contact that we made with the organizers of the event seemed pretty sparse on the details as well. So I was already feeling a bit uneasy about what was happening, but it felt like I'd already made that public commitment to our group to go. We'd already paid for our flights to Miami and those are non-refundable. Even as Alexis and her friends were boarding the plane, things kept getting worse. So we got on the plane, which strike three. And I was on my phone because I found a Twitter account saying that people had started arriving and didn't have housing and didn't have any food. Turns out that, first of all, her friends were obsessing about was one of the biggest frauds of twenty seventeen fire festival. All these models, like in the Bahamas, the most insane festival the world has ever seen, an island getaway turned disaster. It became very far barren when we got to the island. Of course, as most people know now, nothing was as promised. We were not a luxury resort style. We were just in pretty damp tents, basically spending the whole time there trying to figure out how to get out. There's a name for what happened with Alexis. It's called Escalation of commitment to a losing course of action. It's when you find out you've made a bad decision, but instead of cutting your losses, you doubled down. You invest your time, your money or your identity and decisions long after it's become obvious that they're dead ends. You may not have ended up at fire festival, but I'm willing to bet that you've escalated your commitment to plenty of bad decisions. So how do you pull the plug sooner? I'm Adam Grant and this is WorkLife, my podcast with the TED Audio Collective. I'm an organizational psychologist. I study how to make work, not suck. In this show. I take you inside the minds of fascinating people to help us rethink how we work, lead and live today, why we get trapped in bad decisions and how you and your workplace can get unstuck. Thanks to Morgan Stanley for sponsoring this episode. Let's start from the beginning. My father was one of the very earliest people who started a discount store and it was very successful and he started a second one on the third one until he had a chain of stores in the late 1950s. Barista was a teenager in Southern California, and for almost a decade, he saw his dad grow his business to 15 stores and he was really doing well. And then the large national companies, they would just open a store right across the street practically and undercut all the prices. They literally drove all the independent people, all the small guys out of business. By then, Barry was in his 20s watching his father's business decline. It was slow and painful. He refused to give up. And so he kept putting more and more of his own personal money into the business until finally he had no more personal money left and it ended up closing up. So that was something that was really indelibly engraved in my psyche. Fast forward a few years and Barry was watching the American government fall into the same trap. It dawned on me that the Vietnam War was very similar to my father's experience, that we kept investing more and more. We kept having larger and larger losses, but we kept as a country refusing to admit that this was unlikely to succeed. Today, Barry is an organizational behavior professor at UC Berkeley, and he coined the concept of escalation of commitment. Escalation of commitment occurs when you're in a situation in which it is possible to add more resources to a course of action or a prior decision in order to rectify a loss. Barry is the world's leading expert on this problem, but even he can't help but fall victim to escalation from time to time. I've had some old cars and then when the warranty expires, then a bunch of little things start going wrong and then a little bit bigger things going wrong and then bigger and bigger. And I have been agonizing about whether to actually sell it and get rid of it or put more money in. It even happened in his marriage. I probably hung on longer than I should have went through years and years of marital therapy. Barry, in a moment like that, do you not realize you're in an escalation trap? I realize I'm in it, but I still realize that it is a very difficult situation. And maybe I can tell myself it might be a lie, that this might be one of the exceptions in which it actually might be rational to invest more in the situation. If this can happen to an expert on escalation of commitment, what hope is there for the rest of us? I'm painfully familiar with this phenomenon myself, like the time I wrote a whole book instead of a book proposal and had to throw away over 100000 words and start over or the time. I spent months trying to change the behavior of a toxic team member when I should have just let him go. Escalation of commitment happens in every workplace. I think about the times when you overinvested in a failing project stuck around in a miserable job. I struggled to walk away from an abusive boss or a toxic culture or even away from work. Poured your heart and soul into a romantic relationship that clearly wasn't working. So why don't we know better? Why do we fall into the same trap again and again, pouring more and more of ourselves into a bad decision, even when all the evidence points us the other way? The most common answer, people give sunk costs, we've already invested our time or money, and we want to do everything in our power to get a return on that investment, just like a Lexus at fire festival. Sunk costs are part of a story, but decades of research show that the most powerful forces aren't economic, they're emotional. Escalation is where people make errors because of their ego and their emotions. It's not just a cold calculation of the loss of money or time. It's the hot pain of threats to our sense of self. They're afraid to admit a mistake and they end up justifying a decision to themselves. In a case like this, I'm trying to protect my ego to convince myself that I didn't make a bad choice. I'm also trying to protect my image, to convince others that I made a good choice, because otherwise I might end up having people think that I'm not a good decision maker or I'm a loser. I'm not somebody who's to be trusted. The more we've invested in a decision, the more attached we become to it and the more attached it becomes to us. This is where an awful lot of the real disasters happen in terms of business decisions. People don't want to admit errors because their work identity has become linked with the course of action. People may even label the thing saying, Oh , that project, that's Jim's baby or that's Mary's project. And you become so identified with it that if the project fails, your career is down the tubes. Ironically, the very steps we take to defend our egos and images end up making us look worse. One of the places Berry studied this was the NBA. You'd think coaches would give the most playing time to the best players, like how many points you score, how many steals you make and how you rebound and so forth. And there is some effect of that, obviously. But there's also a very significant effect of how high you were in the draft. Even if top draft picks weren't playing well, coaches still kept them in the game. They made a big bet on this guy, so they wanted to prove they made the right decision and hadn't blown millions beyond ego and image. There's another emotional factor that fuels these kinds of escalation traps anticipated regrette. You're worried you'll wish you hadn't pulled the plug in. The NBA managers were afraid of giving up too soon on a potential star. They're thinking about maybe trading a particular athlete to another team, but then they're thinking, oh my God, he's not done very well with us. But what if he suddenly blooms? But I'm watching him on the other team, then I'm going to feel even worse. You probably know that voice inside your head, what are you doing? You can't give up too soon. Everyone's going to think you're a quitter and a failure, a failure. You won't find a better opportunity at some point. You just have to say it's over. Let it go. But that's easier said than done. Just ask Janice Burch. I was so scared, I don't ever remember being so scared to do anything then to tell my supervisor that I wanted to quit. Janice has one of the most practical strategies I've seen for escaping escalation of commitment. But she didn't discover it overnight. She's been working at a software company for a couple of years and for almost that entire time, she was unhappy, but she couldn't bring herself to leave. She started out with high hopes when I saw this job advertised. I definitely felt like this. One hundred percent is my dream job. The company was well respected. The benefits were amazing. This customer support job was perfect for Janice, at least on paper. It offered room to grow personal responsibility for managing a team and a culture of flexibility and freedom, I guess kind of be like invited into what seemed like this like exclusive club of awesomeness. But pretty soon reality crashed the party. I would say the honeymoon was over for me when I went to a meetup and I found out that someone that I had been interviewed by and I really admired had been let go. And not very many people knew about it and everyone was upset about that. And I guess it's just like in regular relationships and you talk about the honeymoon phase, you always say, oh, there were all these red flags and you're just like, oh, well, I just I couldn't see them because I was just so blinded by love. It's kind of the same thing. A few months into the job, Janice had some concerns and she heard other people complaining, but she didn't feel that she could speak up. She also felt that the company had a serious lack of diversity, Janice said that when she started she was the only black employee and that did not improve much over time. But she'd invested so much in this job, so instead of rethinking her commitment, Jannis escalated it by investing more energy and time and stayed in the job for two more years. She told herself that since her co-workers were reluctant to speak up, she might be able to change the company. I'm going to be the person to, like, jump in and make this change where others, you know, may be hesitant or whatever it is like I'm going to be the one. And so I was going to take it in and try to help. And how did it feel putting so much energy into a job and a culture that you knew deep down was not right? It's almost like you're gaslighting yourself, like you're telling yourself. No, no. Like all of the evidence around you is not correct. There's just you just have to do this one one little thing or do more. Barista knows the feeling at a certain point when the evidence is overwhelming. You have to ask yourself, is this grit or is it blindness or is it just my own ego that's getting in the way? When you reach that point, you might find that an antidote to escalation of commitment is another commitment. But to go the opposite way, a plan to pull the plug. And Janis created a clever strategy, a one year exit plan. I basically created three simple steps. These are the things that I'm going to do to, like, actually build myself up and give myself the courage to leave this toxic relationship. The first point was that I was going to build relationships outside of the company. So try to like meet up with people and just build relationships with people who can help me in whatever my next phase of life was going to be. Second on the list, stop engaging in what Janice calls energy zaps. Yeah, energy zaps, not interacting with, you know, what I call problematic people to go back to the relationship comparison. I guess I became emotionally unavailable at work. Her third step was to leverage her company's perks, to broaden her horizons is basically just trying to max out what was available to me then. One in particular is that we got to go to conferences. And so culture was obviously something that I was really interested and engaged with. So I've got a culture conferences and again, try to build relationships with people. It almost sounds like you had a strategy for disinvesting yourself. Yeah, that's exactly what it was. And about a year after she made this plan, she left. When I look back and I think about why I held on so much to that job in that position, I think it's because deep down, I have thought, like, this is as good as it gets. The beauty of a one year exit plan is that it gave Janice time to explore different paths and to detach emotionally instead of ripping off the Band-Aid. Janice now runs two coaching firms, works for flow and before diversity, her main regret is that she didn't make her exit plan sooner. One of my favorite ways to avoid that mistake is to identify your deal breakers, just like you probably have a list of nonstarters in her romantic partner, you can create a similar list for what's unacceptable in a job, a boss or a culture. If you figure them out up front, you can keep yourself honest. I've often advised students to do this and they report that it helps them re-evaluate their decisions and avoid escalation. But what if the escalation is bigger than you? What if your team, your boss or your entire company makes a habit of staying the course in a very bad course? More on that after the break. OK, this is going to be a different kind of that I play a personal role in selecting the sponsors for this podcast because they all have interesting cultures of their they're out today. We're going inside the workplace at Morgan Stanley. I am a big believer in, you know, standing on the shoulders of others, I am my ancestors, you know, from Nigeria and Ghana, West Africa, I am their wildest dreams, you know, to whom much is given, much is required. And so I believe that that's tattooed on my soul and my heart. Meet Mandele Crowley. Ever since he was a kid, Mandela is understood how important it is to have someone in your corner. Our childhood was one where we were raised by our grandparents. We had a little bit of adversity losing our parents relatively early. We were fortunate in that we had our grandparents because we were at risk of going into the foster care system. But my grandparents stepped in and they were amazing, particularly my grandmother. She was everything. Unfortunately, she passed from cancer. From that moment on, I literally started taking care of myself when I was 16 years old. But Mandela wasn't just taking care of himself. He also had his younger brother to look after. I had a younger brother who was 14 at the time where I essentially had to become his parent. And then I started to think about things that I had to do to make sure that both he and I were OK. It was around that time that he heard about an internship at Morgan Stanley. I was one of five kids that got to interview Adam. I showed up in a gold suit, black shirt, black and gold tie, and I got the job that opened the door for him. And then as Mandela was nearing the end of his internship, his colleagues opened another door. My colleagues knew my personal situation and they essentially put it out there that, hey, if you can figure out how to balance your school schedule with work, we'd love to keep you on. So Mandela started working at a trading desk during the day and attending college at night. He's now been with the firm for almost 30 years. And it all goes back to that first high school internship when his colleagues saw his potential and helped him achieve it. The guy who hired me on the desk was still a very dear friend and mentor of mine to this day, and he was pretty hands on in terms of helping to coach and mentor and all that stuff. Then he was offered his first leadership job, and that is when I came to appreciate my superpower, and that is motivating and mobilizing talent. Mandela rose to become the head of private wealth management, and now he's Morgan Stanley's chief human resources officer. Thing that really comes to mind when I think about why this firm was different. For me, it's really been the diversity of experiences that I've been able to have. I've had a series of careers at every step of his journey. He's made time to keep opening doors. I view it as a real responsibility, not just because of my day job, but I just feel like it's a fundamental responsibility that I have. Being a mentor doesn't just bring satisfaction and meaning. Research reveals that he can have surprising career benefits. People who spend time mentoring others are more likely to get promoted, in part because mentoring helps them develop and demonstrate their leadership skills. So there is a collegiality to the culture here. When you're a young person coming up the ranks and you need advice irrespective of who that person is or where they sit in the firm's ecosystem, you're going to get that meeting. I'm always making time for young folks or up and coming folks who are trying to figure out this thing called a career because you win in life with people. Mendell has opened doors for many up and coming employers, but there's one who stands out. He's a Puerto Rican kid from Paterson, New Jersey, first in his family to go to college. I end up hiring him. Two years later, I get promoted and I get to bring one analyst with me. Guess who I bring with me? I bring him. He's just got promoted to managing director. He's just an incredible human being. He's a great person. I'm the godfather of his son. You know, it's one of those classics, you know, when friends become like family, he's very much in that category. Collaboration and inclusion are core values in Morgan Stanley's culture, and they're shaping its future. Learn more Morgan Stanley dotcoms, people. Extracting ourselves from our own bad decisions is hard enough. Our ego and our image are in danger, but escalation is even worse when it happens. An entire teams or organizations. You know, Kodak was the industry leader in photography. They pioneered research into the digital camera, but then they shelved it and escalated their commitment to film. Bad decisions and then the decision to stick with them don't happen in a vacuum. The culture and structure of an organization can propel us straight into escalation of commitment. But research shows there are tangible steps organizations can take to protect us to make it easier to take a clear eyed look at the course we're on and even change direction. Berry style identified one of those steps in research on banks. It's very common for banks to loan money and to and to lose money. Banks fall victim to escalation of commitment when they keep expecting people who have defaulted on loan payments to come through instead of writing them off as uncollectable, Barry and his colleagues analyzed data from nearly all the banks in California over nine years. They found that banks were more likely to de-escalate their commitment to problem loans after senior executives left. The executives who had approved the original loans were motivated to keep justifying their decisions. When new executives took over, they quickly recognized that someone who's missed 17 payments probably isn't going to come through a number 18 if you move the loan decision from the original people who made the loan just like going to an objective third party, it's more likely that you will start to recognize the losses. So if I'm a CEO, are you saying I should fire all my executives so that people are finally willing to cut their losses? Well, I wouldn't maybe go that far. If you don't have turnover inside your organization, you at least need an outside perspective, somebody who can look at things with a kind of a cold eye and say, this is what I would do if I were facing this situation. This is the first of three important steps organizations can take to prevent escalation of commitment, separate the decision from the initial decision maker. There's an organization that does exactly this, its acts also known as Google's Moonshot Factory, it's where inventors and entrepreneurs build and launch new projects that seem out of this world, like self-driving cars and balloons, beaming Internet to remote communities. My name is Cathy Qanoon and I was formerly a rapid evaluator at X Rapid Evaluator. Is that a job? Is a job rapid evaluators at X? Our role is to find new opportunities for X. . So what are the things X should work on next? Are you a rapid evaluator in other parts of your life? Do you just show up at a restaurant and immediately know what to order? I think that a lot of my rapid evaluative tendency is just consumed in my professional life so much that in my personal life I'm like to my husband, can you please just can you decide what we're going to have for dinner? You decide I'm fine with whatever. In other parts of Google and Alphabet, escalation has been a problem. They took eight years to abandon their failed attempt at social networking. Remember Google Plus? And they waited too long to recognize that Google Glass was not going to make it as a consumer product. So it xts rapid evaluators like Cathy were tasked with offering an outside perspective on bold ideas, looking for reasons to pull the plug, even if the project in question was their own. So Cathy would always ask, what is the thing that will bring it down back in 2013? Cathy learned about an idea that could disrupt the oil industry. She'd been looking for a climate project, so she got excited about this new study she read. What if we could further this research, figure out how to commercialize it, and then combine that carbon dioxide with renewable hydrogen to make hydrocarbons, which is just a scientific way of saying make fuels out of it? So you're trying to turn seawater into fuel shorthand? Yes, that's what we would say, is it's turning seawater into fuel. Cathy immediately saw this as a crucial environmental breakthrough for Extra to fund. So she went all in foghorn. That's what they named the project was going to be her baby. But as someone whose job was to protect other people from escalation, Cathy knew she needed to be wary of it at the outset. Is it truly as good of an idea as it seems? It can take years to find out whether a project has succeeded or failed. Luckily at Beristain, his colleagues have discovered a workaround long before you know the outcome of a decision. You can create metrics to evaluate the quality of your decision process and process. Accountability is that you should be accountable for making a reasonably good decision, not in terms of how it turns out, but that you've been reasonably conscientious in terms of assessing alternatives and not biasing the data process accountability. That's a second step for avoiding escalation. The important thing with this is setting your targets and your benchmarks in advance. One way of holding people accountable for a good decision process is to establish kill signals. A kill signal was a mechanism for keeping ourselves honest, so at the beginning of the project, we tried to think like, what could we see that would tell us, all right, this just isn't going to work. So in our case with popcorn, we really wanted to make commercial fuel. We needed a path to be able to make it for under five dollars a gallon because our thinking was if it's much higher than that, there just won't be a market for it. Kill signals are process boxes to check gates, you need to make it through in order to keep going. Maybe your kill signal is we don't want to have to tackle huge regulatory problems. That seems like something every team should do in every workplace. Yeah, I mean, even just thinking about what would your kill signal be, it tells you a lot about the problem you're trying to solve. It also seems like it's more it has broader applications. So I should I should take a new job and have a kill signal around. OK, here's what would need to happen in order for me to decide that it's time to leave this job or time to walk away from this culture. I totally agree. It's almost like principles, right? It's like what are my values and principles that I don't want to compromise on? And it's it's very helpful to have some sort of moral compass or some sort of fixed point in terms of one's value system to guide you when the decisions become very fraught. So Foghorn gets the green light. Kathee sets her kill signal for this project to be successful in today's market, they cannot go over five dollars a gallon and they get to work. We were tackling things, were fixing them. It's great. But then we realize just the pumping energy alone. To pump all the water you would need to get the CO2 out is too much like it's an astronomical cost. Her kill signal starts flashing. She knows this is not good for the future outcomes of the project, but they're on a roll. What if they invest just a little bit more? It was like, OK, yeah, pumping costs. That's a challenge. But like, look at all this stuff we're figuring out. I think we were making so much progress on making the prototype work better that it gave us some hope, hope, even a sliver of hope can keep a failing project alive. So Kathy decides to send a message. I just sat down at my desk at X and just wrote an email acknowledging here was the vision and here were all the amazing things that we accomplished. But here are the challenges. And given where we are now and everything we've learned, I'm inclined to proceed by suggesting that this doesn't continue. Wait, you shut down your own project? I did. I recommended that it be shut down. Who does that? Apparently I do. All it took was a spreadsheet. I just realized the number, like the dollar numbers that I would have to ask for to make meaningful progress, given all the challenges, combined with the risk that we would not achieve our goals because of all of the complexity and the unknowns, even with the five dollars a gallon example by when. Right. It's possible we'll get there by 2050. But clearly that's not what the kill signal meant. It felt like wishful thinking. You know, it's like in my heart of hearts, I kind of knew it was more likely not to succeed. You know, there's a lot of opportunity cost for everyone, and it just seemed cleaner to shut it down. Kathy wasn't just focused on her own goals. She was thinking about what was best for the team and coming up with the most honest assessment that I could think would put the team as individuals in the best position going forward, because no one wants to work on something that's not going to work. Research shows that when we consider our responsibilities to others, we're less prone to escalation. Shifting attention away from our own egos and images and toward the greater good can allow us to make a more balanced assessment to free people from ego and image concerns. Organizations need to think differently about incentives to make failure acceptable. So even though the project hasn't worked out, if the person has been very diligent in looking at what the best prospects were, that person should still be rewarded and be given a good future in the company. That's a third step for de-escalation, taking the stigma out of admitting a failure. It's created an annual ceremony to recognize people who have the wisdom to pull the plug, because even if it wasn't the breakthrough they'd hoped for, their time and resources were still well spent. That day is all about celebrating the project that are no longer with us and recognizing them for everything that they gave X, and just like how X has benefited from them. And I do think that it would be too much to say people are happy when their projects are killed or it's a positive experience. Certainly not like everyone is human, but at least it normalizes it. Beyond throwing a party to celebrate the value of a failed project, Cathy's boss went further. He ended up giving us a bonus. And what? Yeah, you got a bonus for admitting that your project wasn't promising and shutting it down? We did. It only solidified that culture that he was already creating. Didn't that mean admitting failure, though ? Well, my job as a rapid evaluator was to evaluate and this was my evaluation. So I didn't see it that way because it's like if you punish failure and you simultaneously know it's inevitable, then you are creating an environment where people are inclined to hide it or misrepresent it. Yeah, I mean, if if you punish people for failing, they will do everything in their power to try to convince themselves and others that their project is not a failure. And then they'll identify with the project and attach their ego to it in a way that's very stressful for everyone. And then it's no longer as possible to separate. I'm a failure from this idea that I was pursuing isn't going to work, which are two very obviously different things, but don't always feel very different. I'm smiling here because you just described that as if you've spent the past 10 years reading the psychology of escalation of commitment, which I can't say that I have, but maybe I've lived it a little bit. We don't need to celebrate failure. We just need to normalize it. What you're highlighting here is that if you had plunged more of your time, energy and resources into foghorn, you might have missed out on a much bigger possibility. Yes, I absolutely agree. I mean, it's like maybe this is a bad analogy, but it's like the friend who's dating the person that everyone kind of knows isn't the right match. And even the friend isn't very happy. But they're worried that if they break up with that person, there won't be any other person for them. That is the exact same phenomenon. It's like you have to have this belief that there is something out there worth finding. And so if what you're doing now is mediocre, it's worth stopping to find that thing. That's not. If you normalize failure in your organization, it can help people de-escalate their commitment to bad decisions and focus their energy on better opportunities, because Kathy pulled the plug on Foghorn. She was able to pursue a new project which eventually launched her career as an entrepreneur. And I am the founder and president of Dandelion Energy, a geothermal startup. Every time I talk about escalation of commitment, whether it's with startup founders or military generals or students, there's one question that always comes up is one person's escalation, another's heroic persistence. If you think about it, most of our Hollywood movies, they usually have the protagonists experiencing a long series of setbacks, but then they have stuck to it and they've refused to admit failure. And in fact, everyone around them has told them that whatever is happening is a failure and everyone around them is dropped off and they have hung in there and they are ultimately successful. And yeah, grit can be a good thing. We need people with the will to persist and triumph in the face of obstacles. But when you're channeling your inner Katniss Everdeen, Inigo Montoya or Forrest Gump, it's worth pausing to see if you're on the wrong path because you might be Wile E. Coyote chasing a road runner you'll never catch. Next time on Work Life, it was incredibly humbling because I would submit job after job after application after application and would hear nothing. It took an entire year to get a full time job. Everyone's face career turbulence. The current recession is jeopardizing millions of careers right now. But we've been here before and there are lessons we can learn from past recessions. WorkLife is hosted by me, Adam Grant, it shows produced by Ted with Transmitter Media. Our team includes Colin Helmes Credico and Dan O'Donnell, Joanne DeLuna, Grace Rubenstein, Michelle Quint, Ben Ben Chang and Anna Feeling. This episode was produced by Constanza Gallardo, our shows mixed by Rick Juan. Our fact checker is Paul Durbin, original music by Hartsdale Sue and Alison Layton. Brown had stories produced by Pineapple Street Studios special thanks to our sponsors LinkedIn, Logitech, Morgan Stanley, Sappi and Verizon for their research on escalation of commitment. Thanks to Cigale Bastide, Dustin Slesin and Don Connellan, Jerry McNamara, Jonathan Miles, Clough's Mozer and colleagues Henry Moon and of course, Barry stock for the audio from Fire Festival. The Greatest Party That Never Happened. Documentary is courtesy of Netflix and for the intro to Kathee and the insights on gratitude to Courtney Hoan. I hope to get a recording of this, so the next time I need to decide whether I should keep that old car of mine or whatever, I will not fall into the same traps that I have spent my research career trying to create lessons about how to avoid that. I think there's there's no better person to be persuaded by than someone you know well and trust a lot yourself. Thank you.

Frequently Occurring Word Combinations

ngrams of length 2

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ngrams of length 3

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Important Words

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beginning
behavior
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